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by The Federal Republic of Alpenburg. . 1,416 reads.

Technology

Scientific & Technic History

Technology, the system of τέχνη (tékhnē, "art, craft, deft handiwork"), is an organisation of human science and cognisance in adaptations, machines, methods and processes. The market efficiency and accessibility, and the progressive and liberal cognisance, of the of the continent promoted the importance of technic potential. Technic progress has been a technocratic feat and Atlantean effort, an apt act of appropriation by humanity. Technology is a "handy" ideology of technic solutions for practical problems. Science (Wissenschaft, science, scienza) is an expression of an ideal but not a reality. Defending the principle of the universality of science depends on the intention and obligation of maintaining its equal and just accessibility for all human beings. The epistemologic nucleus of empiric and logic science is its philosophy of intersubjective testability. The historiography of science is a history of inter-communal (e.g., multicultural and international) origins with economic foundations. The genial creation and evolution of technology (e.g., the harmonic system of apparatus, instrument, implement, equipment and machine) advances industry and progresses humanity. The unification of observable universal forces, phenomena, and interactions of nature is the principal effort of physical science. In physics, Isaac Newton united gravitation and motion. James Clerk Maxwell united electricity and magnetism. Albert Einstein later united both variety of space and time (relative not absolute), and the equivalency of mass and energy. Derived and modelled from the observations of Michael Faraday's experiments, Maxwell's electromagnetic equations, however, are the limit of quantum electrodynamics, which describe photoelectric (light and matter) interaction. Maxwell is considered to be the founder of electrical engineering. Electrical engineering or electrotechnics (Elektrotechnik, électrotechnique, elettrotecnica) of "electricians" has historically been a highly respected engineering profession. Its innovation has been central to the technological progression and scientific advancement in society. A practitioner of engineering is called an engineer (Ingenieur, ingénieur, ingegnere).

Mathematics

The common (aural and visual) language of science and engineering is mathematics. The symbol of technology, a tangible act of manipulation, is the prehensile hand. The hand is the corporal human instrument for anthropocentric measure. It facilitates the existential creation and physical application of the cerebral and neural functions of mental perception and conception. It is capital and principal to the realisation of conceivable potential ideas as actual. The right-hand rule mnemonic describes the orientation of the pole (axis of rotation) of spiral helices, or the normal vector of a surface curve, of the direction angular momentum and rotational force produced by angular velocity and acceleration, of the coordinate axes of three-dimensional space, and of the direction of induced magnetic field lines and electric current flow. In the virtual image formed by reflection, lateral spatial inversion occurs for one coordinate, resulting in the reversal of the coordinate axis normal to the plane mirror. This is a transformation of chirality such that the object and the virtual image are asymmetric or not superimposable by rotation or translation transformations. Hands are chiral objects because they have chirality. The property of polarisation of an electromagnetic wave describes the chiral orientation of an electric and magnetic field vector, i.e. the periodic function of direction and amplitude. In a transverse wave, the orientation of the linear or circular (a special case of elliptical) oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the field. If parity symmetry of an interaction is conserved, a spatial inversion called a parity transformation results in invariant consequences. This transformation inverts the chirality (basis orientation of vector space) of a system. For the three dimensions of space, the vertical axis is in the positive (not negative) direction that is perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane formed by orthogonal axes. The rule geometrically expresses the product of two linearly independent vectors in three-dimensional space as a vector that is orthogonal (at a 90 degree or π/2 radian angle, or quarter revolution, rotation, gyration, cycle or turn, relative) to both. Compare this to the scalar product that is the projection of two vectors.

The definition of language includes mathematics, a form of lingual logic (i.e., pertaining to words, speech, discourse, response, dialect, intellect, discussion, narration, oration, and reason). Mathematics is used by science and engineering to describe, resolve, and realise the Cosmos. The tradition of mathematics began in Aleixandria as geometry. This geometry had a spiritual and mystical significance in Palmaism. For example, astronomy and astrology of the Sun, Earth and Moon are central myths to its cosmic theology. The Sun is represented as a disc (a circular figure whose ring or annular corona limit is a circle). The disc symbolises the concept of cosmic unity. The celestial and terrestrial divine light of the Sun is compared to that of an esoteric and mystic glass lamp. The circle is a special curve that divides a plane of space into interior and exterior regions. It consists of all points in a plane that are equidistant (equal distance) from the centre. This distance is defined by a line segment that joins the centre of a circle with any single point on the circle. The longitude of this segment, or radius, is half that of the diameter, which is a line segment that passes through the centre and whose terminal points are on the circle. An arc is a connected space of the circle whose terminal points can be connected by a chord. The region limited by the linear chord is a segment. A secant is a coplanar and linear extension of the chord such that it intersects the circle at two points. A circular sector is defined by two radii (plural of radius) with a common terminal point at the centre and terminal points at the terminal points of an arc. The region common to the intersection of two coinciding discs is a lens (named vesica piscis for two circles of equal radius; a triangular convex polygon as a curve of constant breadth formed of radii of three circular arcs is named for Franz Reuleaux). A tangent is a coplanar line that intersects the circle at a single, common point so it only "touches" the curve. It is not defined (does not exist with a definition) at a vertex. Differentiability implies its continuity. A tangent is the limit when two points of a secant approximates (or tends to) each other (i.e., its gradient approximates its limit value). A point of inflection (inflexion) occurs when a tangent traverses a graphical curve (function), which represents a change in curvature (i.e., concave or convex). This do not occur in a circle (and the other conic sections).

Two circles are congruent (i.e., a spatial relation of equal dimension and form, independent of position and orientation) if they have an equal diameter (i.e., one ensemble of points can be transformed into the other by an isometry of translation, rotation or reflection). The circle is a special type of ellipse where the two foci are coincident at the centre. The ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola are types of conic sections. Conics are intersections of the surface of a cone with a plane. A cone is a line rotated around an axis at the centre of the base to form a three-dimensional figure. If the points of the planar base are include, the the cone is a solid object. The exclusion of the base forms a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. A circle is obtained when the plane of intersection is parallel to that of the base or perpendicular to the axis. A conic section is the locus (with the plural loci) of all points whose distance to the focus (a fixed point) is a constant eccentricity, or a multiple of the distance from the locus of points to the directrix (a fixed line). The vertex is equidistant to the directrix and focus. The eccentricity of a circle is zero, of an ellipse is greater than zero and less than one, of a parabola is one, and of a hyperbola is greater than one. These figures describe astronomical orbits. The circle is both the limiting case of the ellipse and of a curve of constant breadth (large width). In the second case, the perpendicular distance between two parallel lines that intersect the limit of a convex figure at a single point is equal in all directions of those lines. For a circle, its extent is the diameter. These curves are called rollers or rotators because of their constant extent in motion with respect to the central axis of rotation. The infinite limit (in terms of sides edges, and vertices) of a regular (equilateral, equiangle, and convex) polygon approximates a circle, if area or perimeter is fixed.

Industry

In Atlantean culture, the word is mightier than the sword. The importance of writing in mathematics, literature, philosophy, history, art, and science possesses common instruments. Rhombus GmbH manufactures and produces utensils and implements known for their quality and utility as its Hermes mark (the Psychopomp and the mercurial divinity of communication, messages, languages, frontiers, eloquence, commerce, and script who is the half brother of Apollo and eternal virgin or maid(en) Athena, and the periplean son of the maternal Maia of revival who is the Pleiad daughter of Atlas). The graphic stylus inscribes the symbols of language on paper with pigments including ink (tint) and graphite, which is carbon in a hexagonal crystalline atomic structure (archaically called plumbago or "lead" whose plumb ores have a similar appearance in the mines of hewers) and powdered with argillaceous clay for pencils (classified by duress and obscurity). These mechanic pens (cylindrical, hexagonal, or polygonal tubes such that the transversal section is a circle, a hexagon or a Reuleaux triangle) of used in generic writing and technic drawing (engineering draughting) transfer pigment by a rolling ball applying viscous ink or by abrasion that adheres to the paper and whose marks (symbolic pictures of notes, letters, and numbers) can be erased with plastic polymer latex gum or polyvinyl chloride. These implements are typical methods for dactyl (digital) extension and impression by scribes and writers. The typographic press or printer that stamps (applies pressure to) inked glyphs of (alphabetical and numerical) characters, letters, signs, symbols, and punctuation to the paper medium. The technology accelerated renascent education and human cognisance.

AEG SEG
The emblem of General Electric.
Automotive manufacturing in Alpenburg is led by FAAT Motor Company (Alpenburgische Automobilfabrik Turin AG, Fabrique Alpesbourgeois d'Automobiles de Turin S.A., Fabbrica Alpiborghese d'Automobili di Torino S.A.) based in Turin. FAAT, through its various marks (Marken, marques, marchi) of plaques with symbolic emblems and logotypes, has historically been involved in motorsport and the fabrication of machines (Maschinenfabrik, fabrique de machines, fabbrica di macchine). A monogram or—if not a combination of graphemes (e.g. initial letters of a name of a natural, artificial, individual, commercial, regal, legal, juridical, national, municipal and communal corporate person) in one motive image or figurative symbol—cipher (from the Arabic صِفْر or ṣifr, itself from صَفْر or ṣafr for "void" as a calque of the Sanskrit sunya, as a cognate of "zero" that is a numerically different digit compared to the unique, monic, unitary and sole unification of one as unity or singularity that is named وَاحِد or wāḥid and أَحَد or ʾaḥad) is for identification, representation and recognition. It serves to inform the identity with a design of a mark, logotype, emblem, idol, icon, firm, autograph, holograph, signature, (en)sign or signum manus. FAAT fabricates its volumetric (alternative or rotative) internal combustion motors, which operate in four successive cycles of admission (aspiration), compression (ignition), combustion (explosion and expansion, which are the volumetric opposite of implosion and concentration in an energetic difference of internal and external pressure) and exhaustion (escape) in cylinders or chambers. Forced alimentation by compression of the exhausted escape is used to augment power from volumetric displacement, including in mechanisms with an eccentric rotation. Most automobiles manufactured by FAAT, aerodynamic in fuselage and chassis, are classified in the sport, luxury, compact, executive and transporter segments (modular platforms), and are prolific vehicles designed as a sedan with a saloon (salon(e), not the "couped") and a hatch (portal trap or "hedge") for transporting people and baggage from a railway station to their estate (private domestic family residence, where location relative to public municipal services and marketplaces of the civil society and economic community is the principal value). Lamps, suspension and disc brakes are the norm, with regenerative and dynamic braking used to convert the mechanic energy of the rotating shaft into electric energy with an electric motor as an electric generator. As an Atlantean competitor and industrial corporation of designers (creators and engineers) in constructive study, its automobiles compete with the automotive (cf. locomotive) union (group) of the European (stranger) Volkswagen ("folk's wagon") of the German Bursche ("[student with] sack, burse") family from Bohemia and in Swabia (i.e., Stuttgart or "stud yard, garden", which is similar to the "Mercedes" mark of Benz, Daimler and Maybach). The petroleum companies in Atlantis adapted to the transition and conversion to electric motors and hydrogen as a combustible for motors and cells (electric piles).

Link
An Linkairship over Orpheus Bay in Rio de Rosa, Palma Riviera (11630 HE).
Largely industrial (electric, rail, health care, and energy) manufacturing exists, primarily by the Munch-based engineering corporation, the General Electric Company (Allgemeine Elektrische Gesellschaft AG, Société d'Électricité Générale S.A., Società di Elettricità Generale S.A.). General Electric participates and collaborates in the electric and electronics industry. It designs and fabricates electric motors and electric generators including the alternator and dynamo(-electric machine) for industrial objectives. Its General Electric Laboratories ("Labs") is world-famous for industrial research and scientific development in telecommunications, computer science (informatics), material science, mathematics, and physics. As the Vulcan mark, General Electric produces consumer electronics (computer and television screens) and domestic dispositives (washer, dryer, dehumidifier and desiccator machines; motorised processors, mixers, beaters, and churns; air climate conditioners and refrigerators). The ovens, furnaces, hearths, stoves, boilers, and exchangers (radiators and convectors) it produces use electromagnetic induction and electric resistance (of ceramic glass or incandescent lamps of vaporous halogen gas and metallic wolfram filament or edder within a vitreous bulb or globe that attaches by a chiral helix around a cylinder) to cook and bake with thermal radiation, convection, and conduction. Its aspirators use suction, or force caused by the dynamic diminution of the pressure of a partial vacuum created by electrically motorised pump and ventilator fan, to mechanically collect detritus as a fluid stream of solid and liquid particles in a purse or cyclone. General Electric produces imaging systems (cameras; microscopes; transducers; scientific optical instruments; medical imaging for diagnostic or therapeutic medicine such as emission and transmission scanners, e.g. computed tomography, echography and magnetic resonance imaging; electrophysiology recorders such as electrocardiographs and electroencephalographs; and ophthalmic lenses) with the Alhazen mark, electronic and mechanic timepieces (clocks and watches) with the Chronos mark, audio equipment (for musical recording and high fidelity), computer hardware, energy systems, and telecommunication equipment with the Maxwell mark. Headquartered in Munch, the General Aerospace Company (Allgemeine Luft- und Raumfahrt Gesellschaft AG, Société d'Aérospatiale Générale S.A., Società di Aerospaziale Generale S.A.) makes the Aerobus airplanes (Flugzeug, avion, aeroplano), helicopters (Hubschrauber, hélicoptère, elicottero), a supersonic (ultrasonic and hypersonic, not sonic, subsonic, infrasonic or hyposonic) airliner (Verkehrsflugzeug, avion de ligne, aereo di linea) and an electric aircraft (which fly and glide in the aerial horizontal and the vertical directions; cf. terrestrial electric vehicles that are powered by lithium-ion batteries, accumulators or piles and are fabricated by FAAT and General Electric). The technic limitation of these is volumetric (spatial) and gravimetric (material) energetic density (specific volume or mass) from the exergy related to the enthalpy and entropy of thermal combustion or kinetic energy of (physical, mechanical, electrical and chemical) reaction. General Aerospace designs according to fluid mechanics principles (aerodynamics versus hydrodynamics, and pneumatics versus hydraulics). As a leading aeronautics and space (Luft- und Raumfahrt, aéronautique et spatial, aeronautica e spazio), but not armaments, company notable for ergonomic aviation electronics, General Aerospace also designs and manufactures airships (Luftschiff, dirigeable, dirigibile) for the Lufthansa fleet. Its aerodrome is famous for its helium airship hangars (named for Cepelin or Zep(p)elin). It fabricates continuous internal combustion motors serially comprised of a compressor, combustion chamber and turbine (gas, compared to the other fluids of liquid water and steam or water vapour, which transfers mechanic energy to work). The company is also a contractor of the Atlantean Space Agency.

Normalisation

Technology can be described to have four causes: (1) substance (the material composition and determination); (2) form (the formal arrangement and disposition); (3) agent (the efficient movement and transformation); and (4) function (the final motivation and adaptation). The objective of norms is the reflection of scientific natural order in social and technic order. Science as natural philosophy can be divided from philosophy by its investigation of latent phenomena as physics (the mechanics or cause of matter, motion, force and energy), in contrast to metaphysics (the technics or magic of form, function, verity and reality). Normalisation—with impartial and technic attestation the core medulla or marrow—is a guardian in the maintenance and protection of (1) the universality and equity of commerce and relation, (2) the verity and reality of discourse and communication, (3) the uniformity and normality in reproduction and measurement. International technic normalisation, whether pan-Atlantean, planetary or worldwide (weltweit, mondial, mondiale), through independent verification (validation, confirmation, certification, accreditation and authentication) of specifications, indications, designations and prerequisites for a product, service, or system assures the coordination necessary for economic well-being in industrial society. This commensurable civilisation is a figurative paragon, a modular, normal, comparative and evaluative acute stone for whetting, honing, sharpening and touching. The harmony of normal (statistical, aspirational and functional expectation, or typical, habitual and usual regularity) forms euphony from cacophony. Consistent quality of the goods and services (products and processes) produced and processed by industrial and material organisations is necessary for the satisfaction of the desires of clients. Quality control and design of the mass production systems of technic products (equipment of instruments, implements, and components) necessitates structural responsibility, sustainability, and transparency. Statistical measures and analysis aid in calibration and the identification of corrective and preventive actions for normal (canon or regular) conformity and continuous technic progress.

The Atlantean Normalisation Institute (Atlantiden Normungsinstitut, Institut atlantéen de normalisation, Istituto atlantideo de normalizzazione) or ANI is the organisation for the norms of electrical and mechanical industry that cooperates with the International Electrotechnic Commission (Internationale Elektrotechnische Kommission, Commission électrotechnique internationale, Commissione elettrotecnica internazionale) or IEC, within the International Telecommunications Union (Internationale Fernmeldeunion, Union internationale des télécommunications, Unione internazionale delle telecomunicazioni) or ITU, and within the International Organisation for Normalisation (Internationale Organisation für Normung, Organisation internationale de normalisation, Organizzazione internazionale per la normazione) or ISO (although not an acronym but an abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos or ίσος, meaning "equal"). All four are administered in Geneva, also the seat of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (Internationales Komitee für Gewicht und Maß, Comité international des poids et mesures, Comitato internazionale dei pesi e delle misure) or ICWM. The ICWM normalises the pounds and masses utilised as quantitative (base and derived) units of calibres (of form) and gauges (of function), which are the temporal, material, spatial, thermal, and luminal "metres" of dimension. The decimal metric system has legally replaced that of all industrial sectors, including chemical or pharmaceutical apothecaries and the dimensions or definitions of construction. The ANI specifies harmonised technic norms for structural design and engineering in the Atlascodes. These norms apply to domestic, commercial and industrial construction of buildings, edifices, erections and bastions to assure security, stability, salvation and fortification. They are symbolic of the mythical columns as a mundane and human invention that sustain the celestial spheres on the terrestrial sphere. The ANI conducts the obligatory certification (qualification, verification, confirmation, identification, authentication, evaluation, homologation, inspection, attestation and classification) of service quality (certainty of the expectation of security) by an Atlantean conformity mark on products that comply and conform with Atlascode regulation, which is assurable and enforceable in AU member states. The symbolic and graphic mark of the estimation sign (℮) marks homogeneity (completion from the complementary approximation and satisfaction of identity or similarity, in the expectation of uniformity or conformity) of the nominal quantity of content to permitted tolerance (tolerable error by a value with the positive addition or plus and the negative subtraction or minus symbolised by ± and the inverse ∓, e.g. the deviation in a confidence interval of experimental empirics and statistics). Like the ICWM, the ITU, ISO, and IEC form working groups of experts, as a joint committee of authorities, to decide on technic norms (Normen, normes, norme). The ISO systematised geometric dimensions and tolerances for the variation (accuracy and precision) of a nominal geometry for objects (models of points, lines, planes and surfaces) and assemblies with datum references (to characteristic types and elements) and product definitions (representations and operations of partitions, associations, constructions, evaluations, collections and extractions). The ISO and IEC formulated a stylistic norm for physical quantities based on the international system of metric units of the authority, the General Conference (Generalkonferenz, Conférence générale, Conferenza generale), supervised as a metrological and intergovernmental organisation (international bureau or office created by the Metre Convention treaty) of the ICWM.

Research

The Atlantean Research Council (Atlantiden Forschungsrat, Conseil atlantéen de la recherche, Consiglio atlantideo della ricerca) or ARC funds (basic and fundamental) scientific research at Atlantean universities and institutions. For example, the ARC funds the Atlantean Centre for Biology (Atlantiden Zentrum für Biologie, Centre atlantéen pour Biologie, Centro atlantideo per Biologia) or CAB, a laboratory in Alpenburg which researches molecular biology, biological chemistry, biological physics, neurosciences, genetics, and informatics. Alpenburg uniquely hosts the heavy-ion physics research laboratory the Atlantean Centre for Nuclear Research (Atlantiden Zentrum für Kernforschung, Centre atlantéen pour la recherche nucléaire, Centro atlantideo per la ricerca nucleare) or CARN (the acronym from the name in French) in Geneva. As the home of the Large Subatomic Collider (a particle accelerator, which operates like EM imaging microscopes), CARN specialises in particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic physics, nuclear chemistry, and physical chemistry. By medium of its study of physics (Physik, physique, fisica), it has synthesised chemical elements that are confirmed as discovered by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (Internationale Union für reine und angewandte Chemie, Union internationale de chimie pure et appliquée, Unione internazionale di chimica pura e applicata) or IUPAC and that are included (and named) in the periodic table system. The IUPAC normalises organic and inorganic chemical nomenclature from formulaic stoichiometry. CARN is famous as the birthplace of the World Wide Web (WWW). The WWW is applied and accessible over the Internet that was born in Nova-Lox as a pan-Atlantean state-funded project of an interconnected computer network and a communication protocol. The application protocol for connective, distributive and collaborative hypermedia (a "web" of hypertext and its hyperlink ligaments) information systems was initiated at CARN. The uniform resource locator of the protocol is an address, identifier or identification scheme that precedes the host name appended by the domain name (e.g., with Alpenburg having the country code top-level domain of .ab) that is succeeded by a path, file name, query string, and fragment identifier. The delimiter for the URL, with the colon member and the oblique bar used in computer file systems, is a point. The commercial at (@) is used in electronic messengers to indicate a user (name) at a domain. The symbol is an Iberian arroba from Arabic اَلرُّبْع‎ or ar-rubʿ signifying "one quarter part", as a unit of mass or volume of a carrier (a vessel or container, e.g. amphora, hydria, cantharus or alcarraza from the Arabic الكُرَّاز‎ or al-kurrāz). It is similar to the "anarchy within order" of libertarian socialism and the gender neutral suffix of -o/a.

The most popular (re)search engine (a genie or daemon in the sense of algorithmic motor or machine) is Spindle. As an animate insect or robotic spider spinning a web developed by academic libraries, the graphical work it fabricates is an index that indicates the hyperlink location of hypertext documents (pages, graphics, images, audio, video, files, forms, functions, cards, charts and "schedes"). It provides services such as electronic mail (messengers, couriers, and post), library (bible of information and cognisance), maps (navigational and nautical charts or the geographic and cartographic representations of topology), and places (commercial markets and social spaces). The General Electric Labs is prominent in this technic research and technologic development. It contributed to: (1) cybernetics with regulatory systems and signals of communication and control; (2) informatics with programming languages for algorithms and digital computers; and (3) cryptography with encryption, codes and ciphers for secure and private information communication. Cybernetics is the scientific study of moderation and frena (i.e., steering, governing, guiding, directing, and conducting) in animal and machine (i.e., natural and artificial organisms) that interact and experience with a stream (e.g., current and flux) of data. Artificial and natural intelligence, as machine and human learning and knowledge, exists in intersection of informational engineering and biological science. In the processing realm of filters of electric and neural signals, modulators (interrupters, commutators, disjunctors, connectors, transducers, receptors, inhibitors, and activators) control the passage of messengers (connection, conduction and transmission of currents). The objective to create artificial intelligence in the Linkimage of natural intelligence as a technic machine is a delusional and Promethean act of hubris. The resultant product would be a mere approximation or replication of the perfect animal human (i.e., with an augmented memory), with the restriction of autonomous liberty with coercive service. The moderation of curiosity with prudence and the limitation of imaginary creativity with reality are evolutionary programmes to govern and control the complexity.

Electronics

With myth being fundamental to the history as a mnemonic illustration of significance, the following fictional sketch describes and depicts the nomenclature of electrotechnics. In explaining the electrochemical cell, Faraday coined the terms anode, cathode and ion. Imagine the path, line or curve of electric current is East to West as the Sun (Helios) apparently traverses the heaven of Earth (Gaia). In the ion (from the Greek ión or ἰόν meaning "going") solution of the cell divided by the semipermeable membrane, current exits the anode (ánodos or ᾰ̓́νοδος meaning "upper way") on the East side to enter the cathode (káthodos or κᾰ́θοδος meaning "nether way") on the West side just as the Sun ascends and descends. Or more technically correct, the electrons rise in the East and set in the West, transferring energy for physical systems. At the anode, oxidation occurs resulting in electrons lost to the oxidant or oxidising agent. The reductant or reducing agent, as the cathode, gains electrons in a reduction reaction. Electrons (from the Latin for "amber, brimstone, alloy of argent silver and or gold", a resinous sap conflated with a secretion of musk-like odour from the cachalot whale with is capital spermaceti) are negatively charged subatomic particles whose motion or flow is the source of electric current. By convention, current flows opposite of the movement of electrons. That is, positive charges descend the gradient of the electric potential (energy per unit charge) difference, whilst negative charges ascend. Ions are produced in the reduction and oxidation reactions. When electrons flow from the negative anode to the positive cathode in the electric circuit, a cation is a positively charged ion produced at the anode that flows to the cathode, whilst an anion is a negatively charged ion produced at the cathode that flows to the anode. Electric charges produce an electromagnetic field of force. Consistent with Newton's third law of motion where all forces occur in equal magnitude and opposite direction pairs of action and reaction, like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Materials

Foundational to diodes, transistors and semiconductors, a p–n junction consists of a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with connected between two terminals. Between these two terminals, p-type (positive in reference to doped interstitial electron holes) and n-type (negative in reference to doped electrons in the valence shell of the neutral atoms) semiconductor materials are created. Dopant atoms (by dipping or baptism) are added to the silicon crystal lattice to donate or accept an electron in the covalent bonds of the structure, causing the donor in the n-type to have a positive charge and the acceptor in the p-type to have a negative charge. Conjoining the regions at the junction results in the regions being neutral at equilibrium. The charge carriers diffuse (the electrons in the n-type to the p-type and the holes in the p-type to the n-type). This creates an electric field in the zone with a total charge at the junction, known as the space charge depletion region, that provides a force opposing the charge diffusion. The p-type and n-type terminal are respectively called the anode and cathode because of this electric field directed from the positively charged holes to the negatively charged electrons. The bias or application of an external potential modifies the resistance (inverse of conductance) caused by the internal potential, and therefore current in one direction (anode to cathode). The positive potential applied to the p-type material and negative potential applied to the n-type material respectively repels the holes and electrons, thereby diminishing the breadth of the depletion zone and the magnitude of the electric field counteracting diffusion and recombination.

Glass, which transmits, reflects and refracts light, is used for artistic, habitational, domestic, industrial and scientific laboratory purposes such as window panes and glassware. For obvious (trivial) reasons, light and therefore the vitreous medium of glass are elemental to the solar symbolism of Atlantean culture. Glass is essential to optic and optoelectronic technologies, whether optical lenses, discs, or fibres. The latter is used for fibre-optic telecommunication networks, and fibreglass reinforced plastic and moulded polymer matrices. Optical reflectors (mirrors, analogous to acoustic and atomic mirrors) that reflect visible light (electromagnetic radiation perceptible with the human eye) are constructed from glass. The oldest form of glass is of silica or silicon dioxide, of which the majority is the sand of coastal and continental environments. Related quartz, or crystalline silicon dioxide tetrahedra, is used for its piezoelectric prosperities in electronic movements. The face of timepieces are often sapphire (aluminium oxide crystal, or a polyhedric and crystalline solid material), one of the hardest (most dure) minerals after crystalline silicon carbide and carbon (diamond, named from the Greek ἀδᾰ́μᾱς or adámās for "adamant, indomitable" for "steel" and via Akkadian related to the Persian الماس or almâs). Unlike quartz, silicate glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) and transparent solid. With high resistivity (the inverse of conductivity), like ceramics (from silicate clay, with vitrification or terra cocta, which is Latin for "baked earth") and unlike metals, glass is a durable electric and thermal insulator (isolator). Glass may be decorated with vitreous enamel, which is powdered glass that fuses to the surface. It is produced with the additives of soda (sodium carbonate), lime (calcium oxide, which produces and forms calcium hydroxide when mixed and reacts with water), magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, and boron trioxide (from mineral borax or tincal).

The refractive brilliance of quartz crystal is imitated with plumbous and vitreous lead glass. Polymer glass (e.g., acrylic glass) is synthetic and plastic like natural latex gum and resin (e.g., tzictli or mastic for dental mastication). Solid and material objects in mechanics have stark resistance when subject to efforts and forces. This capacity (approximated for the structure in two-dimensions when not generalised to three-dimensions with elasticity and plasticity) is the defined by the application of forces (normal compression or tension that is perpendicular to the surface or shear sectional that is parallel) and deformation determines the properties of the material. These spatial forces are measured as pressure (with units of a 1 Pascal or Pa, defined as 1 Newton per 1 square metre of surface or 1 kg m−1 s−2) and geometric axial deflection or displacement per unit length. The point where elastic deformation cedes to the transition to plastic deformation is the fluency or limit of elasticity. Before this force and displacement are linearly proportional by a modulus. The rupture tension is the maximum pressure in plasticity before fracture (in more ductile materials, this is greater than the preceding limit). The integration of the curve of pressure and displacement equals the energy absorbed by the material in deformation. A plastic (irreversible) and elastic (reversible) deformation, and ultimate fracture, is respectively correlated to the material properties of ductility and malleability.

Glass is a dielectric material, i.e. it is an electric insulator that can be polarised by an applied electric field. Distinct from an electric conductor with the motion of electric charges as current through the material in the presence of an electric field, the charges in an dielectric (not to be confused with a "dialectic" or the technic and dialectic method of diagonal dialogue, discourse, discussion, distinction, conversation and interaction that resolves or determines the relation of contradiction in a process of logic, in opposition to criticism and the didactic method) polarise with positive charges displaced in the direction of the field and with negative charges in the opposite. This creates an internal electric field from its displacement current that opposes that of the application. Insulation (isolation) is the inverse of conduction and its conductivity. Electric susceptibility is a proportionality without a dimension that indicates the polarisation density of a dielectric material. It is related to relative permittivity. The material is incapable to polarise in an instant as a response to an applied electric field. Its polarisation is the convolution of the electric field at anterior times (a consequence of causality) with susceptibility (dependent on time). Dispersion characterises the frequency (of the electric field) dependence of susceptibility or permittivity. The displacement of positive and negative ions in the atoms of molecules or crystals causes causes ionic polarisation. This effect permits the electric polarisation of the cellular plasma membrane of the animal cells of corporal tissues. The potential difference facilitates ion transporters and ion channels (e.g., the enzyme of the sodium-potassium pump and the gradient of the proton pump). The electric variation of the neurone with its dendrites, axons and somas (corporal perikarya) results in different parts being excitable and capable in the generation of action potentials. Capacitors contain two electric conductors (metallic plate surfaces) separated by a dielectric medium. Their capacity is to conserve electric energy in the electric field.

Computation

Electronics can be analogue (of continuous value signals) or digital (of discrete value signals) and can have the form an integrated circuit (IC) in a semiconductor substrate. Semiconductors, frequently unipolar field-effect transistors (FETs) called MOSFETs (cf. bipolar junction transistors) used for the ICs of microprocessors (computer processors) and memories, are primarily fabricated from silicon. Other semiconductors include diodes (from díodos or δίοδος meaning "through way"), which were also advanced by the General Electric Labs (as a successor to a complex in western Manhattan of New York) and the Novan Institute and Laboratory (NIL) at the Novan University of Technology (NUT). FETs modify the electric conductivity of the semiconductor substrate (or current channel) between the drain and source by the electric field caused by the potential polarisation applied at the gate. The MOSFET was developed by engineers at the General Electric Labs in Alpenburg. Logic gates are typically constructed from the complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) type of MOSFET fabrication process. These "ports", organised in combinational and sequential systems, implement Boolean functions that are logical connectives of multiple entries (propositions) of binary inputs (internal states) with the single production (truth, states of verity of one and falsity of zero) of a binary (base-2) output (external state). Connective operations include conjunction (AND), inclusive disjunction (OR), negation (NOT), disjunctive negation (NAND), conjunctive negation (NOR), exclusive disjunction (XOR), biconditional (XNOR), conditional (IMPLY), and non-implication (NIMPLY). The principal three connectives are related in an equivalency by the theorems that express: (1) the negation (complement) of a disjunction (union) is the conjunction (intersection) of the negations (complements); and (2) the negation (complement) of a conjunction (intersection) is the disjunction (union) of the negations (complements).

Non-volatile solid-state memories resemble either NOR or NAND gates, which respectively permit direct and sequential access. Volatile solid-state memories are either dynamic or static, implementing a bistable multivibrator where the two stable states are capable of memorisation of binary information. These circuits of transistors and capacitors or transistors and resistors supplanted the nuclear magnetic memories with toroid transformers or permeable mutual inductors. The connectors and protocols used by a serial or parallel bus in the interconnection (communication of data transmission) with computers and peripheral components by ports and controllers are normalised. In computation, abstract machines recognise formal grammars and languages. A common machine the finite state automaton, where the transition from current (present or actual) to next (future or sequent) states can be either deterministic or nondeterministic. Sequential and combinational logic is used to construct these automata. Output in the former circuit depends on past and present input signals (i.e., possess the capacity of memory of states, which is either synchronous or asynchronous, meaning a mutation in state occurs in a simultaneous propagation at the impulse of an oscillation), whilst the output in the latter depends only on present input signals. In a stochastic model (discrete-time chain or continuous-time process) of state space where the statistical (independent and identically distributed) probability that an event (an aleatory variable) in a sequence (concatenation or series) occurs depends solely on the immediately precedent (anterior) event, the future states of the system (conditional on past and present states) depends only upon the present state (not on the series of possible events that preceded it). Mutation of states are transitions, which are associated with conditional probabilities (e.g., the probability that an event occurs knowing the previous state, which is equivalent to the probability that both the event and state occurs divided by the marginal probability of the state). The system can vary in observability, and with either autonomy or control.

Science

Human knowledge (wise cognisance) comprises science, art, philosophy and ideas. In a sensitive and pensive poise with human existence, all of the mind is conscious and inconscious cognitive information processing. The mind is a system of neural signals for control and decision processes. The conceptual and perceptual cognisance functions as the interpretative and representative model of the world or reality of human experience. Cogitation is a mental form that integrates cognition and imagination as conception ("thought") in a creative flow of ideas (e.g., concepts and images) and associations. Sensation is a mental form created from the perception of the sensory receptors responding to a stimulus, and the senses interacting with experience. Theories are only considered scientific, with reasoning insufficient, when the following qualities are present:

  • parsimony (i.e., the "razor" of Ockham)

  • falsifiability

  • empiricism

This definition of science is in disagreement, however, with Plato. Carl Sagan criticised Plato who he argued:

    "believed that ideas were far more real than the natural world. . . . Plato expressed hostility to observation and experiment. He taught contempt for the real world and disdain for the practical application of scientific knowledge. Plato's followers succeeded in extinguishing the light of science and experiment that had been kindled by Democritus and the other Ionians.

Democritus, and the succeeding materialist Epicurus, are credited with proposing the atomic theory of the matter of the Universe, pre-dating the empirical model of modern science. Empirical originates from the ancient Greek empeiria (ἐμπειρία) meaning "experiment, in test", whose meaning is related to the Latin experientia that means "trial". In the empiricism of Aristotle, the human mind is a tabula rasa in which experience is recorded or registered as cognisance, through perception and reason and by intelligence and sapience. Empiricism requires hypotheses be testable by experiment and measurement (experimentation and observation). In the realisation of the ceteris paribus condition of experiment and scientific inquiry, the empirical scientist controls for all independent variables as constants except the one manipulated for the response of the dependent variable. Predictions are derived from tested hypotheses, whether the resulting evidence accepts or rejects it, that inform future hypotheses. The basis of a scientific theory is the evolution and accumulation of hypotheses confirmed by experimental evidence. A theory, as an explanation or interpretation of phenomena in Nature corroborated by empirical evidence, becomes a "fact" by scientific consensus (i.e., reality, being a social construct). In the scientific method, science as knowledge is created by conjecture and refutation, a procedure of response and criticism.

Statistics

In the chase for significance and probability, statistics (the political science of state and population cohorts) is the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Veracity, as the exactitude of correct fact in reference to perfect value, is composed by the quantifiable dimensions of accuracy (systematic error of tendency from expectation) and precision (variability or dispersion from empirical repetition). The conceptual value of verity or truth is a logical proposition of "faith, honour, fact" with the quality of "veracity, fidelity, factuality, loyalty, sincerity, probity, authenticity" and in opposition of falsity and mendacity. The negation of the value of false is true, trig, sooth, very, veracious, or right. David Hume in A Treatise of Human Nature, his statement of philosophical empiricism, scepticism and naturalism, argues that inference of cause and effect cannot be justified by reason but that human faith and credence in this presumption is of mental supposition. The inability to demonstrate that the future will resemble the past (for a future with a significant difference is conceivable) and prove, which presupposes the future will resemble the past (by expectations from an association of facts that proceed from past experience of a sequences of events or series of observations), impedes the rational justification of induction. The cognitive and imaginative human mind attributes causation (as probability of truth) to phenomena (based on the foundation of resemblance) from reoccurring (probable, as in able to be tested and proved, but not certain) conclusions of a connection and interrelation of conjoined objects. For example, the inductive inference of the conjunction of the singular effect of the Universe and the singular (and unobserved) cause of a deity, as extended objects, cannot be justified. The appearance of certainty in reality corresponds to demonstrable probability, which is distinct from specious plausibility and conceivable possibility.

Correlation, as a statistical association, is not technically equivalent to dependence so it does not imply (is not a sufficient condition for) causation. Causal factors proceed effectual existence if and only if the factors had not occurred the consequence would not exist. Correlation is a mathematical operation equal to the integral of the product of two functions that measures the similarity (e.g., a common characteristic by producing a third function that expresses how one modifies the form of the other) of the functions. For two aleatory (stochastic) variables, their correlation results in a probability density function (the relative probability that the variable would equal a determinate value) that is the difference of that of the latter with the former. Convolution, where one function is inverted and translated, the resulting probability density function is the sum. From the observation (experience) of reality, two actual classes or conditions can be predicted. A true negative or positive occurs when an actual negative or positive condition is predicted to be such. Conversely, a false negative or positive are an erred and incorrect conclusion. This classification is similar to hypothesis tests. In this procedure the negative and positive conditions are respectively the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. Acceptance of the null hypothesis, if either correct or incorrect respectively, is analogous to a true or false negative. It is the assumption to be tested in the decision process. Rejection of a true or false null hypothesis is a false or true positive. Precision is equivalent to the ratio of true positives to the total of true and false positives, whereas accuracy is equivalent to the ratio of true positives and negatives to the total of positives and negatives. The ratio of true positives to false negatives is the sensitivity whilst the ratio of true negatives to false positives is the specificity of the classification function model. To test the statistical significance of the evidence of a null hypothesis (the hypothesis for nullification), the prior probability of the example observation (of a probability distribution) that is at least as extreme as the value of the test statistic, conditional to the presumption of verity for the null hypothesis, is calculated as an aleatory variable. An example of this process occurs in a legal trial. The null hypothesis is the presumption of innocence and the alternative hypothesis is the culpability of the defendant. Absolution corresponds to a true or false negative if the defendant is innocent or culpable. Condemnation corresponds to a false or true positive for the identical conditions of truth prior to the probable demonstration and judgement of evidence.

Neuroscience

Statistical inference derives the posterior probability of a consequence of two antecedents: (1) a prior probability and (2) a function of verisimilitude, which is derived from a statistical model for the observed data. It relates the probability a hypothesis affected by evidence or information (singular: datum; plural: data). The posterior probability estimates the conditional probability of the hypothesis given (date) the observed evidence. The prior probability is the probability of the hypothesis anterior to the present observed evidence. The model evidence is the marginal probability (verisimilitude) for all possible hypotheses. The function of verisimilitude is the probability and compatibility of observing the evidence given the hypothesis. The posterior probability is the mathematical product of the function of verisimilitude and the prior probability divided by the model evidence. This methodology of inference has profound implications in the conduct and comportment in decisions of biological systems. In El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote articulates the dilemma between arms (praxis or action) and letters (poiesis or creation). Autopoiesis as a structure in space refers to a system (machine or mechanism) with the capacity or ability for self-organisation in the functional processes of operation. The autopoietic system, in its transformations and interactions, continuously regenerates and realises the relations responsible for its production. The eukaryote cell, an autonomous living system maintained by the influence of information, energy, and matter, is an example. In contrast, an allopoietic system uses material to generate an organised structure other than itself. The structure of an autopoietic systems is coupled with its medium, embodied (integrated and incorporated) in a continuous dynamic of mutations of sensory and motor states. Noogenesis (from nous for "intelligence, intellect, sense, spirit, reason") is the emergence and evolution (the natal origin and creation) of the mind (mental system) in the body (corporal system), of which cosmogenesis (original Universe and universal Cosmos), geogenesis (terrestrial Gaia), biogenesis (vital life), and anthropogenesis (humanity) precedes. This self-organisation is the "making of sense" of the world by the inference of evidence from experience.

The brain (cerebrum, with the assistance and aid of cerebellum) mediates collection and interpretation of immersive reality as statistical model and conceptual idea. It is cerebral centre with functional segregation (specialisation) and integration (connection). Distribution of processes and responses, or the operations of statistical and correlational dependency (i.e., a synergy, or coupled and syntonised, effects of causes), occurs in the neuronal states (variables). The causal architecture and hierarchical structure of the world is recapitulated by the neuronal connections and dispositions. The free energy principle states that biological systems minimise a variational free energy objective function of their internal states, obscured from their external milieu (place, ambient and habitat). These self-organising systems limit their internal states to maintain non-equilibrium homeostasis. The frontier (separation or distinction) of internal (subjective) and external (objective) states is essential to the existence of the structural system. A system exists in space and time in its resistance (ascent on its probability distribution and the dynamic flow of its states to maximise model evidence or the evidence of its existence) to dispersion or dissipation by stochastic fluctuations. The active observations of the system are an implicit active inference that maximises the evidence for its model. The approximation of model evidence is a function of observations of effects and the probability density of their causes. The probabilistic model of the world predicts effects from hypothetical causes. For a space and organism, the external states cause sensory and effect motor states. These states of sensation (perception) and motion (action) depend on each other. The internal states (conception) cause motion and effect sensation. Approximation relates to the process of estimation (calculation of a value of information dependent on data points collected or obtained in experimentation through imputation and computation) by interpolation (construction by a function inferred from experimental observations) and extrapolation (projection, extension or expansion of experience in conjecture).

The basic unit of information is the bit (binary digit), which is the entropy (the expected value of self-information or information content derived from the probability of an event) of a binary stochastic variable with the capacity to carry information. The value (corresponding to two possible logical states) of the variable has an equal probability of being zero (0) or one (1). The character and integer (octet or octad) data types are defined as eight bits (two Linksexadecimal or base-16 digits) such that it can represent decimal values from zero to 255. The upper limit of self-information, of the information content and model evidence, is the inverse of free energy. The minimisation of free energy occurs in the maximisation of model evidence or the minimisation of surprise (that is the upper free energy limit). To minimise free energy is to place an upper limit of the entropy (mean or medium of surprise) of the internal states of the system. Surprise is the difference between the model of conception and the sense of perception, which is minimised in continuous correction and reaction that transforms the external state into expectation. The model, an accurate and parsimonious description with the tension of consistency and simplicity, reflects the reality of human habitation. The visual and aural systems (vision and audition) consist of the ventral stream and dorsal stream. The perceptual function of ventral system is recognition and identification, which requires memory (record) and attention of salient stimuli and responses. It is sensitive to spatial frequencies whose reference is allocentric (object and other centred). The active function of the dorsal system is relative location and repetition. It is sensitive to temporal frequencies whose reference is egocentric (subject and self centred), as is necessary for sensory and motor coordination of the physical body (embodied mind) in space. The mind (brain) exists in and uses a body. The body carries the sensations (senses) and the motion (acts) that the mind manipulates in the sampling (acquisition and accumulation) of information. The cerebral brain is not a passive sensory filter but an active inferential process constituted of mind and body. The model sustains well-being and the probability of survival.

Pharmacology

Lithium (from the Greek λίθος or líthos meaning "stone") is the third element in the periodic table—after hydrogen and helium, respectively meaning "water generator" and "sun". As an alkali (from the Arabic اَلْقِلْي‎ or al-qily meaning "ashes, cinders") metal, its atom is reactive with one valence electron and frequently forms a cation. Relative to the other alkali metals, it is reactivity is minor because the proximity of the electron to the nucleus. In chemistry (originally the philosophy of the (al)chemists of "alchemy", from the Arabic اَلْكِيمِيَاء‎ or al-kīmiyāʾ, itself from the Greek χῠμείᾱ or khumeíā for "fluid, liquid" and χῡμός or khūmós for "juice"), aqueous alkaline solutions are used in conjunction with glycerides to induce the caustic process of saponification in order to produce soaps. In pharmacology, lithium carbonate (an ionic salt, natural like sodium chloride, with a polyatomic anion composed of carbon and oxygen) is effective as a pharmacotherapeutic medication for the stabilisation of affective bipolarity, a disturbance characterised by its disorder (caprice and vagary) of "mood" (humour, temperament and comportment that are the mental attitude and posture of animate states and emotive dispositions, that cycle as a spiritual "fume", θῡμός or thūmós). Because ("by cause") the dose (sanguine concentration) for its therapeutic response (efficacy) is strict relative to the incidence (frequency) of lethal or toxic effects in a population, it requires control (moderate vigilance) by a monitor.

Alkaloids are organic nitrogen compounds (composts or composites) of plant origin similar (analogous) to the animal amines that include amino acids and neurotransmitters. With a pronounced physiological action, alkaloids have been used and abused as (natural and synthetic) medicinal substances. Their classifications include antimicrobial, psychedelic, hallucinogenic, narcotic, anaesthetic, analgesic, soporific, sedative, depressive, dissociative, and stimulative effects. In the nomenclature of medicine, a pharmacological class of medications is the anti-inflammatory steroids and non-steroids. The former are corticosteroids produced in the adrenal cortex, which are distinct from gonadal sex steroids. The latter are antipyretic (reduce fever), analgesic (reduce pain) and reduce inflammation (a reaction to local infection or lesion). Each are classes of amalgamation. The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System of the IHO ensembles medications by chemical structure, biological objective (a therapeutic effect), mechanism of action (molecular modulation of an activity that includes an agonist, antagonist, inverse agonist or modulator of receptors for neurotransmitters, and an activator or inhibitor of enzymes or ion channels), mode of action (induction of functional and anatomical change in an organ), and therapeutic use in pathology. Administration and regulation assures the uniform control (legal and normal conformity) of therapeutic goods (medical substances) and their formulae (receipts or recipes). A schedule exists as a systematic table (register or catalogue) of information that supplements in an annex or appendix with a serial sequence of classification. This document member of classes classifies substances by the requisites of (1) prescription from a clinical practitioner with a medical license, (2) dispense (preparation or distribution) by a pharmaceutical technician inclusive of a pharmacist, or (3) general access by personal acquisition in a pharmacy.

Amines are critical for the nervous system. In neurotransmission, a stimulus, if it surpasses the liminal potential, initiates an action potential on the presynaptic cytoplasmic (cell or plasma) membrane. This unidirectional and electrochemical gradient depolarisation propagated by the activated sodium channels that causes the regulatory calcium channels to increase the current permeability of the cell. The process occurs in retroaction or realimentation. These systems are a virtuous or vicious cycle and circle (with respect to variation, inequality, discrepancy or disparity, and not the valence of the action or effect), that is (1) positive with an in-phase amplification or augmentation of the signal by regeneration and with a tendency of stability, or (2) negative with a phase difference reduction or diminution of the signal by degeneration with a tendency of stability. Homeostatic control systems use these "buckle" sequences in physiology. In effect, the increase of permeability liberates the molecular signals (neurotransmitters) from the synaptic vesicles of an axon (nerve fibre) terminal of the neurone (nerve cell). After exocytosis, the neurotransmitters diffuse across the chemical synapse structure to react and unite with the chemical receptors of dendrite of another (postsynaptic) neurone. This activation is a signal transduction with an excitatory or inhibitory response that generates an amplified or attenuated action potential that is integrated in the processes of spatial or temporal summation. When their received ligations deactivate, the neurotransmitters diffuse to be degraded (inactivated or metabolised) by enzymes (catalyst proteins) or transported by proteins to the presynaptic membrane. These transporter proteins create transmembrane ion concentration gradients and electrochemical potential to reabsorb the neurotransmitters in the axon terminal where they are internalised by a vesicle in endocytosis. The inhibition (retardation) of this recapture can modify physical conduct through mental states and dispositions. The potassium ion channels return the axon to the repose state potential in the repolarisation of the excitable membrane, with the inactivation resulting in a refractory period.

The monoamine neurotransmitter serotonin (secreted by the enteric or metasympathetic nervous system) is connected to vascular constriction or dilation (cf. alkyl nitrites) for the regulation of homeostasis, in addition to the modulation of disposition (temperament, humour and animal state), cognition, memory, satiety and (dormant and somniculous) sleep (which depends upon Linktemperature). The limitation or inhibition of its reabsorption subsequent to its neurotransmission of a signal augments the synaptic levels. Similarly with one amino group, dopamine (a contraction of dihydroxyphenylalanine, which is formed as an amine without a carboxyl group) inhibits norepinephrine in neuromodulation and confers motivational salience (i.e., signals a prominence of attraction and attention or repulsion and aversion in desire and pleasure that propels conduct of organisms). The peptide (protein) hormone of oxytocin, as a response of sexual activity of intimacy and natal partus (birth) of gestation (e.g., uterine contraction, mammary ejection and maternal lactation in reproduction), promotes confidence (fidelity and affinity) in social relations with conduct within groups (i.e., pair copulation). Its secretion is controlled by a positive and retroactive (realimentatary) stimulation. It modulates depressive anxiety, and its augments emotions in a facilitation of prosocial (not antisocial) conduct. In comparison, the propagation of the non-ionising intensity of ultrasound has been used in therapeutic indication for the modulation of neurones, and the disruption of permeability of the haematoencephalic barrier to augment diffusion by cavitation without invasion. Compared to transcranial magnetic stimulation (cf. a transorbital lobotomy of the prefrontal cortex and lateral electrodes that induce the epileptic crisis of convulsion) with the induction of an electric current at the cortical surface of the cerebrum, ultrasonic stimulation at the gamma rhythm (a neural oscillation or fluctuation) penetrates particular interconnected cerebral regions. It requires modulation of foci, but not the correction of aberration of the phase by the cranium. The amplitude of this frequency, which is correlated to memory and desire (attention allocated to intention), is a marker or indicator of bipolar (not unipolar) affective depression and cognitive emotion.

Biology

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the antiparallel spiral or double helix of complementary nitrogenous bases of cytosine, guanine, adenine or thymine that is organised as structures (known as chromosomes of eukaryote cells) containing sequential genetic information for instructional and functional development. In what is called the central dogma of molecular biology, gene expression as protein synthesis occurs two processes: transcription and translation. DNA is copied (transcribed) as RNA (ribonucleic acid, in messenger, transfer and ribosomal forms where thymine is replaced by uracil) to be decoded as amino acids for proteins (polypeptides). Ribosomes, which consist of rRNA and protein, transduce (translate) mRNA to synthesise proteins by the induction of complementary tRNA anticodons sequences (that carry amino acids) to mRNA codons. The sequence (arrangement and disposition) of the nucleobases, which comprise a nucleotide with an organophosphate and deoxyribose, encodes genetic information. The genetic code of the "sense" specifies the sequence of amino acids. Nucleotides comprise the helical spine whose orientation determines the directionality of the spiral. The nucleobases form a complementary base pair where purines are hydrogen bonded (in covalent and electrostatic ligation) with pyrimidines (i.e., cytosine with guanine and adenine with thymine or uracil). The phenotype of a cell (the observable facts of an organism including its morphology or form, physiology or function, conduct, structures and processes) is determined by innate and acquired factors (genetic genotype, epigenetic mechanisms, and ecological conditions or ambient relations). In cell division, DNA is replicated and transmitted to be received by progeny in reproduction (the construction of an identical or similar copy of the dynamic system itself from a coded representation). In the meiosis of eukaryotes, homologous chromosomes (homologues) pair genetic recombination to exchange genetic material (i.e., transfer information facilitated by the intercross of enjambment at the locus, location or position of a sequence homology for the chromatids) between organisms and to produce progeny with combinations of genes that differ from those of their two parents. This augments genetic variation and reduces the accumulation of irreversible deleterious mutations (evolutionary deletions) in the genome. Chromosomes distribute into gametes such that the segregation of alleles (multiple variants) of one gene is independent of alleles of another gene. Meiosis is a mode of sexual reproduction that, in two cellular divisions, (1) exchanges maternal and paternal genetic information in the chromosomal crossing of the duplication of homologous chromosomes from DNA replication, and (2) produces haploid (monoploid) gametes that fuse as a zygote to generate diploid somatic cells with pairs of chromosomes. A zygote is an oval (egg) cell fertilised by a sperm cell, or two fused gametes, which is unlike a spore that germinates. Zygosity is the degree or grade of similarity of the alleles of a gene locus in the cells of a diploid organism (homozygous if identical and heterozygous if different in terms of a dominant or recessive genotypic allele, which is one phenotypic factor of evolution in its contribution, interaction and expression). Mitosis separates replicated chromosomes in a cell nucleus (cyte or karyon) to duplicate a diploid cell that is divided into two identical cells. Evolution by natural selection (in contrast to the artificial selection of the phenotype) in a population is generational descent by modification of a variety of characteristic adaptations that are consequences (products or results) of variation, mutation and recombination. The propensity (probability) of survival and sexual reproduction depends on the these hereditary characteristics that are selected to be an appropriate or adequate advantage. The direction of evolution is not orthogenetic in an active and progressive tendency for the augmentation of the mode of complexity at the expense of simplicity. Complexity is not a necessity in a passive process with a constant mode and crescent mean and variance for the distribution. The macroscopic organisms are merely more perceptible and evident than more common microscopic organisms to the effect of a polar inclination (predilection, predisposition, prejudice, preference or partiality) and ignorance in observation. Biotic (organic) organisms of the biosphere interact and evolve with the abiotic (inorganic) ambient of their habitat in a holistic, synergistic and homeostatic ecosystem of the planetary complexity and contingency of circumstances, situations and processes in spacetime.

Physiology

Functional human physiology is reflected in the symbols and systems of technology. For example, the hand (digits and palm) are symbols of Palmaism. The palm represents the the solar disc, and the digits, solar rays. The hand is a structural system that is imperative for collection, actuation, manipulation, and the manufacture of equipment (implements and instruments). Human hands are special as primates with their thumbs (pollices) opposable to the index finger and the three other digits. This specialisation of mechanics permits precise and tactile gripping of artificial utensils and natural objects. Facultative (circumstantial or optional) bipedalism evolved as an obligatory functional adaptation when it became the primary method (habit) for locomotion, transportation, and chase. The eyes are fundamental to the the pursuit of visual stimuli (in the actions of experience, surveillance, and observation). Version is the symmetrical and synchronous movement of the binocular eyes. The mouth (the oral or buccal cavity) is the orifice (aperture) where comestibles are ingested in the alimentary canal for digestion. In communication, it (including the relative position of labial, dental, lingual, and vocal structures) is the location that modifies phonetic articulation and sound production in human language. Sensation and action (e.g., creation, construction, and fabrication in technic design) depends on these structures and organs. Because of the anthropocentrism of design, the human corporal (formal and functional) structure is divided into physiological (spatial and anatomical) planes. These relative dimensions of physical anatomy section the body.

The transverse (horizontal or axial) plane is parallel to the ground or to the horizon of Earth. It separates the body into cranial (capital or cephalic head, with the facial, oral, nasal, and ocular regions situated in the rostral front) and caudal (tail) locations, which are respectively superior and inferior. The longitudinal planes are perpendicular to the transverse plane and the ground. They are the coronal (frontal or vertical) and sagittal (anteroposterior or median) planes. The coronal plane divides the body into the posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) sections. The sagittal plane supposes bilateral symmetry to bisect the navel and spine (vertebral column of the axial skeleton with the cranial cranium, facial mandibula, pectoral sternum and thoracic cage of osseous bone and knuckle of collagen and mineral calcium phosphate) and to form a quadrant with the umbilical transverse plane. Dividing dextrous right and sinister left, its name means "arrow, fletch, pile, strale (of an arc or bow of a sagittary or shooter)". The transverse, coronal, and sagittal planes are respectively equivalent to the x-z, x-y, and y-z planes (i.e., formed by two of the x-, y- and z-axes, or the abscissa, ordinate and applicate axial coordinate lines of three-dimensional space with an origin and orientation) and intersections. The planes of location define the direction of motion. An appendix or member of an organism is distal (an extremity) or proximal (a point that joins). The organ or tissue (e.g., fibrous muscle and subcutaneous dermal connective tissue that supplement the skeleton with the sinew of cartilage, tendons, and ligaments) of an organism is superficial or profound (visceral and parietal). In motion, flexion describes an angular motion that diminishes the angle between a segment and its proximal segment. Extension is the opposite, describing movement that augments the angle. Abduction is motion that distances (displaces) a structure from the central median, whilst adduction is the opposite. Circumduction is a conical motion in a combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction. Eversion and inversion is the turn of a structure in the direction of the median. Elevation is in the superior direction from the horizontal, whilst depression is motion in the inferior direction. The rotation of internal (medial) rotators is in the direction of the corporal centre of mass whilst that of external (lateral) rotators is the opposite. Supination and pronation respectively refers to the the ventral and the dorsal direction facing up. Protraction (protrusion) and retraction (retrusion) are anterior and posterior movements. Muscles coordinate the synergy (biomechanic movement) in activation and inhibition (of contraction, torsion, and rotation) as agonists and antagonists (flexors and extensors, or abductor and adductors).

Information

The struggle of existence for living beings (vital existence) is not for energy but for thermodynamic entropy from the flux of energy in the physical and natural system of the biosphere. In contrast to the dissipation, the absorption of photons permits energy conversion and transduction in the chemical (photochemical and electrochemical) reactions of photosynthesis and respiration (vectorial transport processes). Information content is encoded in the physical (or chemical) system such that applied work increases or augments order, or diminishes or reduces entropy of the medium. The information is encode in the potential gradients of a local system that define the states of the codification element. A more stable gradient is more effective. Informational entropy is equivalent to thermodynamic entropy when binary code states are identified with binary physical states. Both entropies as probability functions relate degrees of freedom (dimensions of the variable vector, or number of independent coordinates that a dynamic system is able to exist and specify its complete position within imposed constraints, restraints, constrictions, restrictions or limitations) in the system of energy or matter but with different unit constants. In engineering problems where the mechanism is important, informational semantics is irrelevant. Semantic content (the significance of a message) burdens with no additional "charge" (thermodynamic cost of energy) in codification, transmission, and translation. In biology, the message of the genome is encoded in the genotype to specify the phenotype, or the organism expressed and tested in the functional context of physical or natural experience. The sequence of a genome defines the semantic content. Emergent structural and functional properties depend on the processing of semantic content that permits the amplification in complexity of the combinatorial possibilities (extensions, dimensions, adaptations, and interactions) in spacetime. The informational complexity of the genome is determined by the 4n possibilities inherent in a genetic code of four bases in an n-length sequence. Tercet codes of codons specify 20 amino acids that compose the sequence of proteins. Emergence depends on semantics to extend combinatorial possibilities to the apparent phenotypic complexity. Combinatorial complexity is amplified from one-dimension (DNA and RNA) to two-dimensions (chromosomes of sexual reproduction), and through translation to three-dimensions (proteins in interactions with other molecules and cells) and to four-dimensions (phenotype of cellular organisms with tissues, organs, structures, controls, and metabolic and enzymatic catalysis). Information content is exchanged for complexity in the amplification.

All living beings are Linkchronognostic (conscious of time) in temporal sensation (perception) and cognition (conception). Vital conduct by corporal and mental mechanisms adapt in response to the stimuli received from the dynamic ambient. Organisms of chronognosis expect the future relative to its present state. An external signal is transmitted for internal processing. Animals, which have a characteristic spatial mobility, have circadian rhythm ("clocks") that regulate temporal metabolic functions to biochemical references. The dissipation of the energy absorbed from solar radiation as the disorder of heat (a consequence of entropy) is retarded by the chemical and metabolic reactions of the biosphere. This permits temporary order for the complexity, potential, maintenance and evolution of life. With human perception and conception, nothing actually enters the cerebral cortex. The physical or chemical medium for transmission intercepts the channels of sensation that processes in a hierarchical interpretation by association of memories. These vehicles or carriers impinge with the external (corporal) sensory interfaces or the sensations of gustation, vision, audition, tactition, and olfaction. This creates the experience of the apparent insubstantial nature of internal (mental) processes. The motor cortex coordinates motion (with the hands having a dominate representation). In communication, the semantic significance of the information transmitted is only accessible in translation (transduction), and is only valuable in context. Tranduction (interpretation or recognition) and reproduction (replication or duplication) represent semantic inheritance that is subject to mutation, evolution and selection.

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